David Hume (1711-1776)
I. Biographical information
A. Hume was born on April 26, 1711 in Edinburgh.
B. He began attending the University of Edinburgh at the age of 12. It is unknown whether or not he graduated (Huxley 3).
C. He decided to have literary fame and this desire became "the ruling passion of his life and the chief source of his enjoyments" (Huxley 3).
D. Many students are surprised to learn that Hume is considered one of the most important skeptics of modern philosophy, a reputation largely based on his political writings, especially Essays (Hendel ix).
E. He considered himself to be a "pioneer in modern political science" (Stewart 224).
II. Hume's main contribution to free speech theory is found in Essays Moral and Political.
A. The first volume was published in 1741 and the second followed in 1742. Both were published anonymously (Huxley 12).
B. In these volumes, Hume developed a system of political philosophy (Huxley 12).
C. He believed that governments are the way to good governance, but participation in government was not necessary for a good life (Stewart 227).
D. His political theory is based on the idea that good individuals will produce the public good (Stewart 227).
E. Many of these essays are directed at persuading the Jacobites who had opposed the new state of 1688 (Stewart 231).
F. "Of the Liberty of the Press" defends the liberty of the press in England. 1. He observed that the mixture of the English government between monarchy and republic seems to the basis of liberty (Hendel 3).
2. He believed that liberty and slavery were opposites of each other and as one moved away from the extremes freedom came be found. He noted, "As you depart from the extremes and mix a little of monarchy with liberty, the government becomes more free, and on the other hand, when you mix a little liberty with monarchy, the yoke becomes always the more grievous and intolerable" (Hendel 3).
3. Freedom of the press is maintained by having the republican part of the government be more powerful than the monarchy, because the republic needs the free press to maintain itself (Hendel 5).
4. In defense of the freedom of the press, he argued that it would rarely produce "popular tumults or rebellion," because men would not be caught up in the moment but they could read pamphlets and books calmly and rationally (Hendel 6).
5. "But if the liberty of the press ever be lost, it must be lost at once" (Hendel 7).
6. He closes by stating that the liberty of the press is one of the evils that comes with having a mixed government (Hendel 7).
G. "That Politics may be Reduced to a Science"
1. He proposes what he considers to be a "universal axiom in politics, That an hereditary prince, a nobility without vassals, and a people voting by their representatives, form the best Monarchy, Aristocracy and Democracy" (Hume 16).
2. He considered all three of the above forms of government bad. England, however, "conforms to sound political science in that the kingship is hereditary" (Stewart 239).
3. According to Hume, the purpose of a constitution is to prevent bad government (22).
H. "Of the First Principles of Government"
1. He begins by commenting on the easiness of people to allow themselves to be governed. The reason for this he explains is that "force is always on the side of the governed, and governors have nothing to support them but opinion" (Hume 23).
2. He further defines opinion by dividing it into two parts: opinion of interest and opinion of right.
a. Opinion of interest is defined as "the sense of general advantage which is reaped from government."
b. Opinion of right is also divided into two parts: right to power and right to property.
3. The three principles upon which all governments rest are: public interest, right to power and right to property. Secondary principles are self interest, fear and affection.
H. "Idea of the Perfect Commonwealth"
1. Plans of government which require a transformation in the habits of man are purely imaginary. This eliminates Plato's Republic and Sir Thomas More's Utopia. He considers Oceana to be the only viable model available, but it still needs some alterations (Hume 299).
a. "Its rotation is inconvenient."
b. "Its Agrarian is impracticable."
c. It does not provide ''sufficient security for liberty; or redress of grievances."
2. Hume's concept of the perfect government.
a. Let the country be divided into 100 counties. Yearly, each county should elect a member to be their representative (300).
b. Then these representatives would meet together and elect 10 magistrates and one senator (300).
c. Senators will have the executive power (300).
d. Every new law is debated by the senate. If rejected and 10 senators insist and it must be sent to the counties. They may send it to the magistrate or the representatives (300).
e. The court of competitors would be developed for any second place candidate who received at least 1/3 ofthe vote. They have no power, but they inspect public accounts and accuse "any man before the senate." They can also propose laws to the senate, and if rejected appeal to the people (302).
f. All trials are before the magistrate and a jury. But the senate has the authority to call any trial before itself (303).
g. "All free governments must consist of two councils, a lesser and a greater; or in other words of a senate and a people" (304).
h. The senate must always guard against the problem of combinations and divisions (304-5).
1. The problem of combinations is corrected by: the senators are annually elected by men of fortune and education; the small amount of power they are allowed, and the court of competitors.
2. Divisions are corrected by: the smallness of the number of members, it assumes separates interests which is prevented by their dependence on the people; they can expel a problem member.
i. The aforementioned plan is similar to the United Provinces, but it is better because (306-7):
1. Representation is more equal.
2. The problem of aristocracy is corrected with a "well-tempered Democracy."
3. The power of alliances have been removed.
4. The counties have enough interdependence that they do not cause disturbances.
5. Larger powers are given to the senate which allows them to be "expeditious and secret in their resolutions."
III. Hume's work in political theory continues to show the progression toward the current American thought on government and free speech. He believed that civil liberty came through the law which provides the predictability necessary to ensure liberty (Stewart (232). For Hume, government is not the enemy of liberty but necessary to have liberty (Stewart 253). It is also interesting to note the modifications the founding fathers would make. For example, on the idea that free governmen>
Information by Rachel Russell