R. Patrick.Shaw
Immanuel Kant
"Immanuel Kant was born on April 22,1724 in Konigsberg, now Kaliningrad in East Prussia which, except for occasional journeys into the immediate vicinity, he hardly ever left during the whole of his long life of almost eighty years. Konigsberg in the eighteenth century was a lively city which owing to its flourishing trade, was by no means isolated from the world at large. Kant, who was anything but a recluse, enjoyed social life and intelligent conversation. He was friendly with many Konigsberg merchants and regular in his habits, punctual to a fault, he was also a man or urbanity and wit." (Pol. Writings pg. 1)
Although Kant was somewhat influenced by his parents Pietism, their deaths early in his life, led to him losing close relations with his family through most of his life. Kant's mother died in 1738, and his father died in 1746. Perhaps the strongest influence his parents had on him was their social class. Kant's parents were not rich. His father was a harness-maker by trade and Kant was inspired partly due to the social class in which he was raised.
Kant was a brilliant student, and they recognized his intellectual gifts at the University of Konigsberg, where he received a scholarship. As early as 1755 they granted him the right to lecture at the University. He lectured on many subjects including logic, metaphysics, ethics, theory of law, geography, and anthropology. He also wrote his first work in 1755, General History of Nature and Theory of the Heavens. Kant finally found economic security when they appointed him the chair of logic and metaphysics in 1770.
Kant gradually retired from the University of Konigsberg. His mind slowly declined, his memory gave way, and he had to abandon lecturing. In fact, some scholars suggest he may have acquired what we call Alzheimers disease today. In 1800, his pupil Wasianski had to begin looking after him. Other students and friends began to publish his lectures from notes that they had taken down in class. In 1803, he fell seriously ill for the first time. His mind became more clouded. Exactly two months and ten days before his eightieth birthday, on February 12, 1804, Immanuel Kant died.
Kant was a prolific writer throughout his life. For the purposes of this paper we will highlight three of his important writings: What is Enlightenment, Relationship of Theory to Practice, and one of his final writings in 1795 Perpetual Peace.
II. What is Enlightenment
A. "Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one's own understanding without the guidance of another. This immaturity is self-incurred if its cause is not lack of understanding, but lack of resolution and courage to use it without the guidance of another. The motto of enlightenment is therefore: sapere aude! Have courage to use your own understanding." (Pol. Writ. pg. 54)
B. Laziness and cowardice are the reasons why such a large proportion of men, (I suppose they could include women in this as well) even when nature has long emancipated them from alien guidance, nevertheless gladly remain immature for life. "It is so convenient to remain immature!" (Political Writings, Pg. 54)
C. Freedom to use one's reason in all matters is the essence of enlightenment.
D. The public use of man's reason must always be free, and it alone can cause enlightenment. (Sounds like an interesting argument for the freedom of speech and expression.)
E. Private use of reason may quite often be very narrowly restricted, however, without undue hindrance to the progress of enlightenment.
F. Public use of reason is, ". . .that use which anyone may make of it as a man of learning addressing the entire reading public. (i.e. the world at large.)" (Political Writings pg. 55)
G. Private use of reason is, ". . .that use which a person may make of it in a particular civil post or office with which he is entrusted." (Pol. Writ. pg. 55)
III. Relationship of Theory to Practice: On the Common Saying "This May be True in Theory, but it does not Apply in Practice."
A. "A collection of rules, even of practical rules, is termed a theory if the rules concerned are envisaged as principles of a fairly general nature, and if they are abstracted from numerous conditions which, nonetheless, necessarily influence their practical application." (Political Writings pg. 61)
B. "Conversely, not all activities are called practice, but only those realisations (sic) of a particular purpose which are considered to comply with certain generally conceived principles of procedure." (Political Writings pg. 61 )
C. Kant suggests it is obvious that no matter how complete the theory may be, a middle term is required between theory and practice, providing a link and a transition from one to the other.
D. When many say theory does not set with practice, what is really needed is more theory. Several related theories taken in conjunction with one another is more likely to harmonize with practice.
IV. On the Relationship of Theory to Practice In Morality In General: In Reply to some Objections by Professor Garve.
A. Using part of my quote, Garve argues, adherence to the moral law, regardless of happiness, is the one and only ultimate end for man, and must be considered as the creator's unique intention. "My theory is that the creator's unique intention is neither human morality it itself nor happiness in itself, but the highest good possible on earth, the union and harmony of them both." (Political Writings pg. 65)
B. "Man must have an incentive to set him in motion before he can be given a goal towards which this motion should be directed. This incentive can obviously be none other than the law itself."
C. Everything in morals which is true in theory must also be valid in practice.
V. On The Relationship Of Theory To Practice In Political Right: Aaainst Hobbes A.Right is the restriction of each individual's freedom so that it harmonizes with the freedom of everyone else.
B.Public right is the distinctive quality of the external laws which make this constant possible.
C.Men have different views on the empirical end of happiness and what it consists of, so that as far as happiness is concerned, their will "cannot be brought under any common principle not thus under any externals law harmonizing with the freedom of everyone."(Political Writings pg. 73)
D."The civil state, regarded purely as a lawful state, is based on the following a priori principles":
1. Every member of society as a human being is entitled to freedom.
a. "No-one can compel me to be happy>