Terrance,
C.A., Matheson, K., Allard, C. & Schnarr, J.A. (2000). The role of
expectation and
memory-retrieval techniques in the constructions
of beliefs about past events.Applied Cognitive
Psychology, 14, 361-377.
This article concerns the current controversy
over delayed memories recovered in the therapy context.
Some therapists argue that traumatic memories
can become dissociated and unavailable for conscious inspection and that
the only way to uncover these memories is through special techniques like
repeated suggestion. They argue that these techniques are justifiable
because hidden CSA can be substantiated through symptoms.
Critics argue that these techniques can lead to
the creation of false memories.In their introduction Terrance et. al talk
about a number of interesting studies showing that false childhood memories
can be implanted:
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Loftus & Pickrell (1995) in which participants
were led to believe they had been lost in a shopping mall when they were
younger
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Spanos et. al (in press) participants were given
false personality feedback and were led to believe that they had had a
mobile placed in their crib while they were in the hospital. Age
regressed subjects claimed to remember the mobile.
These critics also argue that therapists expectations
can lead them to suggest memories that are consistent with their expectations.
Particular techniques that have been criticized include:
-
Hypnosis
-
Guided imagery teachniques
-
Persistent probing
-
Leading questions
The present study examined whether false beliefs
about the past can be created by using techniques that are similar to the
social situation that that these authors believe exists in therapy and
compared participants who varied in terms of hypnotizability.
Method
One hundred and seventy students took the Caleton
University Responsiveness to Suggestion Scale (CURSS) a measure of hypnotic
suggestibility.
Participants took a bunch of personality tests
that were "computer scored" and they were told that their result indicated
that they were "High Receptive Cognitive Monitors" which they were told
is common in people who were exposed to a "cold water treatment" shortly
after birth.
There were four between subject conditions
-
Hypnotic Age Regression: Used a standard hypnotic
induction technique to produce age regression ("You are getting younger
and younger). Gradually led through several ages until regressed
to the day of birth.
-
Guided Imagery Age Regression: Told that guided imagery
works for people who are not hypnotizable. Asked to active "relive"
various ages all the way back to the day of birth.
-
Expectation to Recall: Told that body keeps records
of all events and that by mentally recreating emotions that they should
be able to recall events.
-
No Treatment Control: Did not receive suggestions
about "cold water treatment"
Probed for memories of the day after birth.
Participants were to write down their memories, rate them in terms of clairity
and difficulty in recall, and indicate whether they thought their reported
experiences were memories or fantasies.
One the second day participants took part in group
discussion with other participants. They were told that by talking
with others who had similar experiences that they may be able to remember
more. Went through two rounds of self reporting. After the
group session participants once again wrote down their memories of the
day after birth.
Results
Participants in the three experimental conditions
were more likely to report memories than subjects in the control condtion.
But the three experimental conditions did not significantly differ from
each other.
Participants in the three experimental conditions
were also more likely to specifically report a memory related to the "cold
water" suggestion than were subjects in the control condition. Furthermore,
the imagery and hyponotic conditions resulted in more cold water memories
than the expectancy condition.
Surprisingly, day after birth memories and water
memories in particular were more common at time one than at time two or
three. In addition, ratings of memory quality and belief in memory were
greater at time one than at other times.Odd?
Discussion
Participants were willing to adopt the suggestion
that they had had their hands immersed in cold water the day after birth
and to report memories of this event.
All three of the memory retrieval techniques produced
these effects, although as far as the specific water memory goes, the expectation
condition produced fewer memories than the guided imagery or hypnosis condition.
Unexpectedly the repeated probing decreased
false memories. The authors suggest that this may be because the
types of incentives for retrieval that exist in therapy were absent in
the experiment. Hmmmmmmmm?
High and medium hypnotizables were more likely
to report false memories than were low hypnotizables.